ေအာ္ဂဲနစ္နည္းပညာေပးသင္တန္း အမွတ္စဥ္ (၄)

Definition of Organic Agriculture (Callling)

Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved.

IFOAM is calling for voluntary translators for this Definition of Organic Agriculture

Brief History of Defining Organic Agriculture for the World

After a two year consultative process, in September 2005 in Adelaide, Australia the General Assembly of IFOAM adopted the Principles of Organic Agriculture which are the fundamentals of Organic Agriculture: health, ecology, care and fairness.

The General Assembly also passed a motion to establish a succinct Definition of Organic Agriculture. This definition must explain what Organic Agriculture is, reflecting its true nature and the Principles in a concise way.

After almost three long years of intensive work, the Task Force on the Definition of Organic Agriculture came up with a definition. The World Board brought the definition for ratification to the General Assembly of IFOAM during its last session period in June 2008 in Vignola, Italy.

If you want to help voluntarily to translate this Definition please click here.

Process

After the motion made by the General Assembly in 2005, the following step was to establish a Task Force on the Definition of Organic Agriculture.

Based on Terms of References, the World Board recruited this Task Force from those who participated on writing the Principles of Organic Agriculture. These Terms of References included the following criteria for the Definition of Organic Agriculture:

• Short / concise
• Positive as opposed to normative (which is the form in which the principles are formulated)
• Positive as opposed to negative (what Organic Agriculture is NOT or does NOT use)
• Cover full diversity of Organic Agriculture in the world
• No specific reference to certification (in line with position on full diversity of Organic Agriculture)
• Based on and tested against the Principles of Organic Agriculture

From April 14^th to May 31^st 2006, a call went out far and wide to send in definitions of Organic Agriculture giving IFOAM the full diversity of thoughts on how to define Organic Agriculture.

The submitted definitions, as well as other definitions from regulations, past IFOAM publications, and organic agriculture-related definitions, were compiled, analyzed, and summarized into the Definition of Organic Agriculture Report. The Task Force on the Definition of Organic Agriculture used the report to craft a first draft definition in August 2006 and called for comments from IFOAM internal bodies.

All contributions (see report) were analyzed, considered, acknowledged, and where appropriate, incorporated. The Task Force formulated a response to the inputs. Along with the response, the Task Force presented a second draft. The general public and IFOAM members were invited to comment on the second draft definition which was composed of four definitions and explanatory notes. A call was made through personal mail contact, through the IFOAM website and with a general reminder. IFOAM was pleased that many people reacted and submitted their feedback on the second draft definition.

In October 2007 the World Board of IFOAM withdrew the requirement from the Terms of References saying that the Definition of Organic Agriculture should be positive as opposed to negative, and it would allow the definition to include some negative wording. The World Board approved this under the condition that the negative wording would emphasize the positive definition.

After two rounds of inputs and comments, the Task Force met in Bonn on December 12^th - 13^th 2007, to come to a final draft. Among the most important considerations that the Task Force made to this final draft definition was that the explanatory notes would no longer be needed.

The Standards Committee was informed about this definition at their meeting on January 19^th – 21^st. Their major recommendation, which was also shared by the Executive Board in January 2008, was to remove the word “food” from the draft definition.

Finally, the World Board in March 2008 approved the following definition:

Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved.

If you want to help voluntarily to translate this Definition please click here

Organic Research in Organic Agriculture

Organic agricultural research generates credible, peer reviewed scientific information, and communicates the verifiable benefits of organic farming and products to society, creating a greater awareness of and demand for organic products. Organic research supports the exchange of successful techniques among farmers and technicians, and assists in developing appropriate and robust varieties for organic production conditions. Organic research highlights the improved health of the earth and its inhabitants through organic agricultural practices.

Organic Agriculture and Food Security Page

The Organic Center - Publications and peer reviewed articles supporting organic

Organic Farming Research Foundation - To foster the improvement and widespread adoption of organic farming systems

Organic Research Database- External website requires a subscription to access.

Organic Eprints - Browse-able database of organic research

The Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (Forschungsinstitut für biologischen Landbau – FiBL) -the world’s leading information and documentation center for organic agriculture (FiBL Shop)


Organic World Congress organized by IFOAM every 3 years is the biggest meeting point for organic researchers worldwide

IFAD-Thematic Evaluation of Organic Agriculture and Poverty Reducton in Asia China and India Focus .pdf

IFOAM often organizes scientific conferences on specific topics
The conference proceedings are available in the IFOAM Bookstore.

Ecology and Farming - The only International Organic Agriculture Periodical




IFOAM is constantly updating the information on this website. Comments or suggestions contact the Platform Coordinator

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The IFOAM Academy for Organic Excellence

Cultivating Organic Leadership

The organic pioneers who initiated Organic Agriculture in the early 20th century were impressive personalities. Drivers of the organic development today are committed and competent leaders in the organic sector, advanced in their thinking and inspiring in their actions. They are farmers, activists, scientists, teachers, advisors, networkers, advocates, processors, traders, communicators, certifiers or consumers.

Their roles are diverse, but they share a vision of a more sustainable, a healthier and a fairer organic world. Organic development in our current dynamic times, in which the world urgently needs organic solutions to address its environmental and social challenges, is in the hands of our leaders worldwide.

Organic people can be organic leaders. Leadership needs talent, vision and commitment, but it needs also learning and interaction with likeminded people.

In order to support organic leadership, IFOAM offers a course for people assuming present or future responsibilities in the organic world. Through the Organic Leadership Course, IFOAM provides a space for learning and experience, and for developing innovative strategies and strong networks.

The course is targeted at present and future leaders of the organic movement. During the course of one year, it will provide an intensive, on-the-job learning process that empowers them to actively assume greater responsibility in pushing the world towards increased sustainability.

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General Information

Eligibility
Elegible participants are women and men, committed to the principles of Organic Agriculture, who wish to achieve personal development and leadership within the Organic Agriculture movement. Typical participants may have their background in:

• Farmers' organizations or national organic movements;
• Organic companies;
• Organic producers, processors, traders or retailers;
• Organic certification bodies;
• Consumers' organisations;
• Organizations campaigning for sustainable rural development;
• Research, extension, education or rural development institutions;
• Government institutions (e.g. ministries of agriculture, development or environment);
• Development agencies.

Learning Objectives
The training will broaden participants' knowledge and develop their skills. After the course, participants will be able to:

• Analyze situations holistically and draw conclusions in line with the principles of Organic Agriculture;
• Design strategies and lead people and organizations in an effective and ethical way;
• Develop organizations and manage projects - this includes planning, fundraising, implementation, monitoring and evaluation;
• Build relationships, networks and cross-sector alliances;
• Master convincing communication inside and outside of their institutions and influence organic advocacy targets;
• Make their value chains more sustainable and competitive;
• Use services from the organic sector, including the IFOAM Organic Guarantee System to develop the organic movement;
• Access research, advise and train.

Core Competencies Acquired by Participants

The Organic Leadership Course is organized on a regional level. It follows a holistic approach, allowing participants to develop:

1. Knowledge, e.g. facts about Organic Agriculture,

2. Skills, e.g. sound management know-how;

3. Attitude, e.g. a leader's personality.

It is geared towards enabling and supporting concrete action. A variety of methods are used to facilitate learning at different levels (action, reflection and theory), as well as learning with and from each other.

Tuition

Two highly intensive residential modules are complemented by periods of online learning. During these periods, the trainees study the materials provided on the learning platform at their own pace and meet on a regular basis in webinars (web-based seminars), consisting of lectures and discussions with subject experts. In this phase, trainees have the opportunity to apply the lessons from the first intensive course to a project of their own choosing, on which they then report and receive feedback from the group.

In total, the course offers 150 hours of intensive training, 16 days in person in a class of 20-25 participants and 10 half day webinars in the same group.

Required Input

Participants are expected to actively engage in all residential trainings, webinars and individual tasks. They will have to implement a project of their own and perform a public appearance (e.g. as a conference speaker or in an interview in the mass media).

Learning success depends on the trainee's attitude - readiness to share experiences and openness to build relationships with peers and other learning process stakeholders is vital to achieve the course objectives.

Participants will need access to a computer and internet. For the duration of the course they are expected to invest on average half to one day per week. It is also anticipated that in the course of the training the participants' organizations become IFOAM Affiliates.

Fees

The tuition fee includes training; teaching materials; excursions; board, lodging and internet access (during the residential training); access to the e-learning software; certification and access to the alumni network. It excludes travels to the residential training, participants' equipment and pocket money. IFOAM may assist candidates in obtaining scholarships.

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South Asia Course 2012

The first IFOAM Leadership Development Course will be held in India in 2012. The maximum number of participants is 25. While the contents of the course will focus on South Asia, applicants from other parts of the world are welcome to apply. The language of instruction is English.

Dates

The course will run from February 1 to November 30, with two full-time residential modules of 10 and 6 days each (March and November) and a part-time e-learning phase that includes 10 webinars.

Location

The course will be held in a location that provides an inspiring learning space through its connections to Indian Organic Agriculture.

Cost

3.200 Euros, including the training, all training materials, accommodation (shared double room) and food during the residential training. Not included are travel costs to the training venue.

Scholarship

IFOAM may support finding scholarships to cover (part of) some participants' course fees. These scholarships are limited to committed participants from the global South with limited means.

Information and registration

Please download the course brochure for further course details, and submit the application form to academy@ifoam.org .

Where can I get information about consumption and prices of organic commodities?

Although organic agriculture is still only a small industry (1-2% of global food sales), it is growing in importance worldwide.
It is difficult to collect information due to lack of official statistics and the level of confidentiality of organizations dealing with organic produce.

However, interest is growing for information about the nature of the organic market dynamics. This will assist in the long-term planning of what produce to supply, in what quantity and quality.

Organic Agriculture Worldwide 2002 - Statistics and Future Prospects published by the Foundation of Ecology and Agriculture (SOL) contains informal information on the global situation of organic agriculture.

Two global studies have been published on world trade in organic produce by the UN: "Organic Food and Beverages: World Supply and Major European Markets" (UNCTAD/WTO International Trade Centre, 1999); and "World Markets for Organic Fruits and Vegetables" (FAO/ITC/CTA, 2001).

For country or commodity-based information see the Country Data page and Marketing and Trade section of the "Links" page on this website. The EU also has statistical information about organic farming amongst its member states.

Is there any kind of economic help for conversion into organic agriculture?

Many northern countries (e.g. EU member states and the USA) do provide financial help for the conversion to organic agriculture, as do a few developing countries (e.g. Tunisia).

This can be very important for the farm economy as the period of conversion often leads to falling yields as it takes time for full biological activity of the agro-ecosystem to be restored.

Intervention may come in a variety of forms including compensation for losses (as during conversion products cannot be sold as organic), integration of extra costs (e.g. certification) or support for infrastructure developments (e.g. for the purchase of machinery or for restructuring rural buildings).
This help may be available during the conversion period, but also, in some cases, for a period after, or under the guise of a different scheme. These payments are often made as a specific sum per hectare, but may also include tax reductions or preferential conditions for credit.

Direct help may be complemented by indirect financial help. This comes in the form of investment in research, rural extension and training for farmers, and organic market development (e.g. awareness campaigns). The premium prices paid by the consumer for the organic produce also form an economic incentive for the individual farmer. Help available to the farmer is, however, very country specific.

For further details you should contact your own country's department that deals with organic agriculture. This might include the ministry for the environment, agriculture or commerce (or their equivalents), regional and/or local government or perhaps a specialized agency.

Information about state support and policy initiatives in Europe can be found in the country reports of the Organic Farming in Europe website. For the USA, search the pages of the National Organic Programme.

Where can I get information on organic agriculture methods and management systems?

The management system of an organic farm is the key to success. However, there are many information gaps and knowledge on technical details is often scarce, especially in developing countries.

Technical information needs to be very location- and product-specific.

Advancements to date have largely been due to private investment, including consumers' willingness to pay for organic products and farmers' creativity and desire to undertake on-farm experimentation.

Research institutes are starting to pay attention to organic agricultural practices and approaches and improved understanding of natural resources process and interactions within organic systems are under investigation.

Can organic farmers produce enough food for everybody?

Food security.Food security is not only a question of the ability to produce food, but also of the ability to access food. Global food production is more than enough to feed the global population, the problem is getting it to the people who need it. In market-marginalized areas, organic farmers can increase food production by managing local resources without having to rely on external inputs or food distribution systems over which they have little control and/or access. It is to be noted that although external agricultural inputs can be substituted by organic management of natural resources, land tenure remains a main constraint to the labour investments needed for organic agriculture. Organic farms grow a variety of crops and livestock in order to optimize competition for nutrients and space between species: this results in less chance of low production or yield failure in all of these simultaneously. This can have an important impact on local food security and resilience. In rain-fed systems, organic agriculture has demonstrated to outperform conventional agricultural systems under environmental stress conditions. Under the right circumstances, the market returns from organic agriculture can potentially contribute to local food security by increasing family incomes. Organic agriculture and yields. The performance of organic agriculture on production depends on the previous agricultural management system. An over-simplification of the impact of conversion to organic agriculture on yields indicates that: In industrial countries, organic systems decrease yields; the range depends on the intensity of external input use before conversion; In the so-called Green Revolution areas (irrigated lands), conversion to organic agriculture usually leads to almost identical yields; In traditional rain-fed agriculture (with low-input external inputs), organic agriculture has the potential to increase yields. In fact, many multiple cropping systems, such as those developed by small holders and subsistence farmers, show higher yields in terms of total harvest per unit area. These yield advantages have been attributed to more efficient use of nutrients, water and light and a combination of other factors such as the introduction of new regenerative elements into the farm (e.g. legumes) and fewer losses to pests and diseases. It can be concluded that increased yields on organic farms are more likely to be achieved if the departure point is a traditional system, even if it is degraded. Results will vary depending on management skills and ecological knowledge, but this can be expected to improve as human capital assets increase. However, it is important to have a good land tenure system because an individual is not likely to invest in improving the land if his/her future there is not secure. Organic agriculture and food security. Persisting world hunger has demonstrated that agriculture alone (be it conventional or not) cannot alone solve food insecurity. Still, many questions are asked with regards to the ability of organic agriculture to provide food - and many speculations are made, without any comprehensive data basis. FAO held an International Conference on Organic Agriculture and Food Security in May 2007 to examine food security in terms of food availability, access to food, stability of food supply systems and food utilization; material and empirical experience discussed demonstrate that organic agriculture has the potential to feed the world, under the right circumstances. Reviews on organic agriculture and food security include: Reducing Food Poverty with Sustainable Agriculture: A Summary of New Evidence (by Pretty and Hine, 2001); The Real Green Revolution: a New Report on Organic and Agro-ecological Farming in the Developing World (Greenpeace, 2002); Organic Agriculture and Food Security (IFOAM, 2002); The Solution to Famine in Africa is Organic Farming not GMOs; Organic Agriculture and Poverty Reduction in Asia (International Fund for Agricultural Development, 2005); Organic Agriculture and Food Security: A Global and Regional Perspective (DARCOF, 2007); and Can Organic Agriculture Feed the World? (Michigan State University, 2007).

What are the environmental benefits of organic agriculture?

Sustainability over the long term. Many changes observed in the environment are long term, occurring slowly over time. Organic agriculture considers the medium- and long-term effect of agricultural interventions on the agro-ecosystem. It aims to produce food while establishing an ecological balance to prevent soil fertility or pest problems. Organic agriculture takes a proactive approach as opposed to treating problems after they emerge.

Soil. Soil building practices such as crop rotations, inter-cropping, symbiotic associations, cover crops, organic fertilizers and minimum tillage are central to organic practices. These encourage soil fauna and flora, improving soil formation and structure and creating more stable systems. In turn, nutrient and energy cycling is increased and the retentive abilities of the soil for nutrients and water are enhanced, compensating for the non-use of mineral fertilizers. Such management techniques also play an important role in soil erosion control. The length of time that the soil is exposed to erosive forces is decreased, soil biodiversity is increased, and nutrient losses are reduced, helping to maintain and enhance soil productivity. Crop export of nutrients is usually compensated by farm-derived renewable resources but it is sometimes necessary to supplement organic soils with potassium, phosphate, calcium, magnesium and trace elements from external sources.

Water. In many agriculture areas, pollution of groundwater courses with synthetic fertilizers and pesticides is a major problem. As the use of these is prohibited in organic agriculture, they are replaced by organic fertilizers (e.g. compost, animal manure, green manure) and through the use of greater biodiversity (in terms of species cultivated and permanent vegetation), enhancing soil structure and water infiltration. Well managed organic systems with better nutrient retentive abilities, greatly reduce the risk of groundwater pollution. In some areas where pollution is a real problem, conversion to organic agriculture is highly encouraged as a restorative measure (e.g. by the Governments of France and Germany).

Air. Organic agriculture reduces non-renewable energy use by decreasing agrochemical needs (these require high quantities of fossil fuel to be produced). Organic agriculture contributes to mitigating the greenhouse effect and global warming through its ability to sequester carbon in the soil. Many management practices used by organic agriculture (e.g. minimum tillage, returning crop residues to the soil, the use of cover crops and rotations, and the greater integration of nitrogen-fixing legumes), increase the return of carbon to the soil, raising productivity and favouring carbon storage.

Biodiversity. Organic farmers are both custodians and users of biodiversity at all levels. At the gene level, traditional and adapted seeds and breeds are preferred for their greater resistance to diseases and their resilience to climatic stress. At the species level, diverse combinations of plants and animals optimize nutrient and energy cycling for agricultural production. At the ecosystem level, the maintenance of natural areas within and around organic fields and absence of chemical inputs create suitable habitats for wildlife. The frequent use of under-utilized species (often as rotation crops to build soil fertility) reduces erosion of agro-biodiversity, creating a healthier gene pool - the basis for future adaptation. The provision of structures providing food and shelter, and the lack of pesticide use, attract new or re-colonizing species to the organic area (both permanent and migratory), including wild flora and fauna (e.g. birds) and organisms beneficial to the organic system such as pollinators and pest predators.

Genetically modified organisms. The use of GMOs within organic systems is not permitted during any stage of organic food production, processing or handling. As the potential impact of GMOs to both the environment and health is not entirely understood, organic agriculture is taking the precautionary approach and choosing to encourage natural biodiversity. The organic label therefore provides an assurance that GMOs have not been used intentionally in the production and processing of the organic products. This is something which cannot be guaranteed in conventional products as labelling the presence of GMOs in food products has not yet come into force in most countries. However, with increasing GMO use in conventional agriculture and due to the method of transmission of GMOs in the environment (e.g. through pollen), organic agriculture will not be able to ensure that organic products are completely GMO free in the future. A detailed discussion on GMOs can be found in the FAO publication "Genetically Modified Organisms, Consumers, Food Safety and the Environment".

Ecological services. The impact of organic agriculture on natural resources favours interactions within the agro-ecosystem that are vital for both agricultural production and nature conservation. Ecological services derived include soil forming and conditioning, soil stabilization, waste recycling, carbon sequestration, nutrients cycling, predation, pollination and habitats. By opting for organic products, the consumer through his/her purchasing power promotes a less polluting agricultural system. The hidden costs of agriculture to the environment in terms of natural resource degradation are reduced. A recent publication by Jules Pretty: "The Real Costs of Modern Farming" examines many of these issues in greater detail.

Does the consumption of organic food increase exposure to biological contaminants?

Food safety standards. There have been many claims that eating organic foods increases exposure to micro-biological contaminants. Studies investigating these claims have found no evidence to support them. It is important to realize that all organic foods must meet the same quality and safety standards applied to conventional foods. These include the CODEX General Principles of Food Hygiene and food safety programmes based on the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system, where required by national regulations. Often, however, the standards of the individual organic certification body are even stricter.

Manure. One of the suggested sources of micro-biological contamination is manure. The use of manure is common in both conventional and organic systems, the potential for contamination is therefore applicable to both. It is well known that manure is a carrier of human pathogens, but properly treated (e.g. composted), it is both a safe form of organic fertilizer and more efficient nutrient source to crops. Furthermore, certified organic farmers are restricted from using untreated manure less than 60 days before the harvest of a crop and are inspected to make sure these standards and restrictions are met.

E. coli. Another stated source of worry is that of E.coli, especially virulent strains such as 0157:H7. The main source of human infection has been identified by the US Centre for Disease Control (CDC) through meat contaminated at slaughter. Evidence suggests that such virulent strains develop in the digestive tract of cattle mainly fed with starchy grains. Cattle fed with hay produce less than 1% the E.coli found in the faeces of those fed with grain. As organic cattle are fed with diets containing a higher proportion of hay, grass and silage, reducing the dependency on fodder sources off-farm, organic agriculture invariably reduces the potential risk of exposure.

Mycotoxins. As fungicides are not permitted anywhere in the production and processing of organic foods, concerns have been raised about contamination with mycotoxins due to moulds. If ingested in low doses over long periods of time, aflatoxins, the most toxic of these substances, can cause liver cancer. It is therefore important to have good agricultural, handling and processing practices, as required by both organic and conventional agriculture, in order to minimize the potential for mould growth. Studies have not shown that consuming organic products leads to a greater risk of mycotoxin contamination.

Post-harvest handling. Packaging, processing, transportation and storage is another point along the path that food travels where contamination could occur, but likewise, this is an argument equally relevant to both organic and conventional foods. The main aim of packaging is to ensure food is microbiologically stable for a defined period, and this is achieved by organic foods. Ingredients of non-agricultural origin are limited during processing and the use of irradiation for the control of pests and deteriorative changes is not permitted, but this does not mean they are necessarily less safe. It is important to note that irradiation itself is a technology that is not accepted by some consumer groups and organic foods therefore provide the consumer with an alternative. Although the organic label is not a health or safety claim, the way food is produced does affect its quality.

For more information, the FAO paper "Food Safety and Quality as Affected by Organic Farming" contains a more detailed discussion on this subject.

Why is organic food more expensive than conventional food?

Certified organic food. Certified organic products are generally more expensive than their conventional counterparts (for which prices have been declining) for a number of reasons:

• Organic food supply is limited as compared to demand;
• Production costs for organic foods are typically higher because of greater labour inputs per unit of output and because greater diversity of enterprises means economies of scale cannot be achieved;
• Post-harvest handling of relatively small quantities of organic foods results in higher costs because of the mandatory segregation of organic and conventional produce, especially for processing and transportation;
• Marketing and the distribution chain for organic products is relatively inefficient and costs are higher because of relatively small volumes.

As demand for organic food and products is increasing, technological innovations and economies of scale should reduce costs of production, processing, distribution and marketing for organic produce.

Prices of organic foods include not only the cost of the food production itself, but also a range of other factors that are not captured in the price of conventional food, such as:

• Environmental enhancement and protection (and avoidance of future expenses to mitigate pollution). For example, higher prices of organic cash crops compensate for low financial returns of rotational periods which are necessary to build soil fertility;
• Higher standards for animal welfare;
• Avoidance of health risks to farmers due to inappropriate handling of pesticides (and avoidance of future medical expenses);
• Rural development by generating additional farm employment and assuring a fair and sufficient income to producers.

Non-certified organic food. In many developing countries, there are agricultural systems that fully meet the requirements of organic agriculture but which are not certified.

Non-certified organic agriculture refers to organic agricultural practices by intent and not by default; this excludes non-sustainable systems which do not use synthetic inputs but which degrade soils due to lack of soil building practices. It is difficult to quantify the extent of these agricultural systems as they exist outside the certification and formal market systems.

The produce of these systems is usually consumed by households or sold locally (e.g. urban and village markets) at the same price as their conventional counterparts.

Although the uncertified produce does not benefit from price premiums, some cases have been documented where non-certified organic agriculture increases productivity of the total farm agro-ecosystem, and saves on purchasing external inputs.

In developed countries, non-certified organic food is often sold directly to consumers through local community support programmes such as box schemes, farmers markets and at the farm gate.

These allow the producer to know exactly what the consumer wants, while the consumer knows where the produce comes from and in the case of box schemes, saves on transport costs through delivery of produce to their homes.

In developed countries, non-certified organic produce usually carries a higher price than its conventional counterpart, in accordance with the specific consumer willingness to pay.

What is behind an organic label?

The label. An organic label indicates that a product has been certified against specific organic standards. The label carries the name of the certification body and the standards with which it complies, (e.g. EU 2092/91). To the informed consumer, this label can function as a guide. Certification bodies evaluate operations according to different organic standards and can be formally recognized by more than one authoritative body. The label of a given certification body, therefore, informs the consumer on the type of standards complied with during production and processing as well as on the type of recognition granted to the certification body. Many certification bodies operate worldwide, most of which are private and originate in developed countries.

International voluntary standards. At the international level the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (the inter-governmental body that sets standards for all foods) has produced international guidelines for Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods to guide producers and to protect consumers against deception and fraud. These guidelines have been agreed upon by all member states of the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The private sector's equivalent to the Codex Alimentarius guidelines is the International Basic Standards for Organic Production and Processing, created by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements - IFOAM. Codex Alimentarius and IFOAM guidelines include accepted management principles for the production of plants, livestock, bees and their products (IFOAM makes provisions also for fibres, aquaculture and non-wood forest products); for handling, storage, processing, packaging and transportation of products, and a list of substances permitted in the production and processing of organic foods. These guidelines are regularly reviewed, particularly the criteria for permitted substances and the process by which inspection is carried out and certification held.

National mandatory standards. The Codex Alimentarius and IFOAM guidelines are minimum standards for organic agriculture, intended to guide governments and private certification bodies in standard setting. As such, they can be considered as standards for standards. Governments can use these texts to develop national organic agriculture programmes which are often more detailed as they respond to specific country needs. Most national standards (e.g. EU countries, Japan, Argentina, India, Tunisia, USA), are specified in regulations which are legally binding.

Local voluntary standards. In some countries (e.g. Germany), individual certification bodies may produce their own standards which can be more stringent than the regulation in force, usually in response to specific consumer demands. Although these are not legally enforceable, private certifiers may be more restrictive than is required by law.

Accreditation. Accreditation is a procedure by which an authoritative body evaluates and gives formal recognition that a certification programme is in accordance with the standards of the authoritative body. For organic agriculture, certification bodies can apply the voluntary international standards and/or the national mandatory standards and be accredited by the related "authority". At international level, the International Organic Accreditation Service. (IOAS) accredits certification bodies according to IFOAM Accreditation Programme criteria by delivering the "IFOAM Accredited" logo (click here to read more about IFOAM Accreditation Program). IOAS is an independent NGO which ensures global equivalency of certification programmes and attempts to harmonize standards, whilst taking into consideration local differences. It must be noted that membership of IFOAM by certifying bodies does not constitute IOAS accreditation. At national level, governments or national accreditation bodies accredit certification bodies operating in their country, if their country has an organic agriculture legislation. Both private and public bodies adhere to the International Organization for Standardization basic standards for accreditation of certifiers (ISO 65) in addition to their specific requirements.

For further details on national certification bodies, consult your own government. The IFOAM website provides information on becoming a certifying body, together with the IFOAM Basic Standards and Accreditation Criteria.

What are certified organic products?

Certified organic products are those which have been produced, stored, processed, handled and marketed in accordance with precise technical specifications (standards) and certified as "organic" by a certification body.

Once conformity with organic standards has been verified by a certification body, the product is afforded a label.
This label will differ depending on the certification body but can be taken as an assurance that the essential elements constituting an "organic" product have been met from the farm to the market.

It is important to note that an organic label applies to the production process, ensuring that the product has been produced and processed in an ecologically sound manner.

The organic label is therefore a production process claim as opposed to a product quality claim.

What is Organic Agriculture (FAO)

There are many explanations and definitions for organic agriculture but all converge to state that it is a system that relies on ecosystem management rather than external agricultural inputs. It is a system that begins to consider potential environmental and social impacts by eliminating the use of synthetic inputs, such as synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, veterinary drugs, genetically modified seeds and breeds, preservatives, additives and irradiation. These are replaced with site-specific management practices that maintain and increase long-term soil fertility and prevent pest and diseases.

"Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It emphasises the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished by using, where possible, agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfil any specific function within the system." (FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission, 1999).

Organic agriculture systems and products are not always certified and are referred to as "non-certified organic agriculture or products". This excludes agriculture systems that do not use synthetic inputs by default (e.g. systems that lack soil building practices and degrade land). Three different driving forces can be identified for organic agriculture:

• Consumer or market-driven organic agriculture. Products are clearly identified through certification and labelling. Consumers take a conscious decision on how their food is produced, processed, handled and marketed. The consumer therefore has a strong influence over organic production.
• Service-driven organic agriculture. In countries such as in the European Union (EU), subsidies for organic agriculture are available to generate environmental goods and services, such as reducing groundwater pollution or creating a more biologically diverse landscape.
• Farmer-driven organic agriculture. Some farmers believe that conventional agriculture is unsustainable and have developed alternative modes of production to improve their family health, farm economies and/or self-reliance. In many developing countries, organic agriculture is adopted as a method to improve household food security or to achieve a reduction of input costs. Produce is not necessarily sold on the market or is sold without a price distinction as it is not certified. In developed countries, small farmers are increasingly developing direct channels to deliver non-certified organic produce to consumers. In the United States of America (USA), farmers marketing small quantities of organic products are formally exempt from certification.